The Orthodox Schools of Hindu Philosophy

 Introduction

The concept of salvation is ubiquitous across most religions. The primary goal of all religions is to guide their followers to salvation using specific laws and techniques. In the Indian subcontinent, Hindu philosophy proposes that the Ultimate Truth can be realized by following the six schools of salvation (or, Darshanas). These schools belong to the orthodox (astika) classification because they accept the Vedas as a supreme source of knowledge. Conversely, the heterodox (nastika) schools of philosophy reject the Vedas. These include Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, and others. 

In this essay, I have only focussed on the orthodox classification.

The Orthodox Schools of Hindu Philosophy  


Overview of the Six Systems:


1. Nyāya

This is the school of logic headed by Gautama. In India, this school flourished in the Nabadwip region of Bengal. Nyāya focuses on the logic to delve in to the root of the problem using sixteen categories namely:

Means of Right Knowledge (Pramana)

Object of Right Knowledge (Prameya)

Doubt (Samsaya)

Purpose (Prayojana)

Familiar Example (Drishtanta)

Tenet (Siddhanta)

Members of a Syllogism (Avayava)

Confutation (Tarka)

Ascertainment (Nirnaya)

Discussion (Vada)

Controversy (Jalpa)

Cavil (Vitanda)

Fallacy (Hetvabhasa)

Equivocation (Chala)

Futility (Jati)

Disagreement (Nigrasthana)

 

Nyāya accepts four pramāṇas or sources of true knowledge:

Direct Perception (Pratyakṣha)

Inference (Anumāna) 

Comparison (Upamāna)

Verbal testimony (Sabda)


2. Vaisesika


The term "Vaisesika" is derived from Sanskrit "visesa" meaning a cardinal feature that sets things apart from others. This school of philosophy was found by Kanada and teaches us that the true nature of reality can be realized by nine eternal realities such as:

Earth (Prithvi)

Water (Apas)

Fire (Tejas)

Air (Vayu)

Ether (Akasha)

Time (Kaal)

Space (Dik)

Soul (Atman)

Mind (Manas)

Of note, the first four essential realities (earth, water, air, and fire) represent parmanus (meaning an atom). Furthermore, parmanus or atoms can be distinguished within substances using four qualities. These involve our sense organs:

Odour (Gandha)

Flavour (Rasa)

Form (Rupa)

Touch (Sparsha)


3. Sānkhya


Kapila’s Sānkhya philosophy provides the path of knowledge which can lead to the termination of misery. Today, this school is not a living faith. It claims that misery only belongs to the body and not to the soul. The soul can be freed from bodily associations and can be set free from the illusion (Maya). Furthermore, Sānkhya postulates a dual existence of the ultimate reality namely the spirit (Purusha) and matter (Prakriti), and elucidates the process of cosmic evolution into twenty-five categories. One can notice that many principles of this school resonates with the Vedānta philosophy, which I have described later in this section.


4. Yoga


Yoga proposes the unification of the individual spirit with the Universal Spirit. It is said that Patanjali did not discover yoga but provided a systemic compilation of the science of yoga which existed before him. This is well described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Interestingly, the root of Yoga philosophy is Sāņkhya whereas, the destination of Yoga philosophy is salvation through the practice of non-attachment. One emerging factor of this school is to understand and control the mind and associate it to the body through our sense organs. The practice of yoga through postures and breathing exercises has gained tremendous popularity across the globe. But our current understanding of the Yoga philosophy is still quite inadequate. 


India and the World can never forget the role of their Hindu Mystics in propagating the Yoga Philosophy. For example, Swami Vivekananada (Raja Yoga), Paramhansa Yogananda (Kriya Yoga) and Sri Aurobindo (Integral Yoga). 

 

5. Mimāmsā


Mimāmsā provides an insight into the Vedas through careful investigation. It can be divided into an earlier part (Purva Mimāṃsā) and a latter part (Uttara Mimāṃsā). The former deals with the actions in the Vedas whereas the latter part derives the knowledge from the Vedas. For simplicity, the earlier part is referred to as Mimāṃsā, founded by Jaimini. The latter part is termed Vedānta meaning “the end of the Vedas”.


6. Vedānta


Vedānta considers Brahman (or, Absolute) as the ultimate reality and is the cornerstone of Hindu philosophy. The core theme of the Vedānta represents the teachings from the Upanishads. Once again, it proposes that individual soul is not different from the Supreme Consciousness. Furthermore, it provides methods to remove the veil of ignorance to realize this unification of souls. 

The principle traditions of Vedānta can be further classified into Bhedabheda (difference vs. Non-difference), Advaita (Non-Dualism), Vishista Advaita (Qualified Non-Dualism), Dvaita (Dualism), and Sudhadvaita (Purely Non Dual). Modern developments of Vedānta include Neo-Vedānta which comprises the Swaminarayan sect of worship.   


Connections between the Six Systems 

Despite individual variations and specific times of evolution, the orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy share some interesting characteristics. I have listed a few of them below:

1. The orthodox schools evolved from the Vedas and hence, accept the Vedic knowledge.

2. Vedic knowledge was delivered as aphorisms (or, Sutras). Understanding these recondite verses is nearly impossible without proper explanation. These explanations and methods are central to the orthodox schools.

3. They accept the code of Universe and the Laws of Nature.

4. The orthodox schools accept the single cycle of Nature. Life and death are just two parts of the same cycle. 

5. They also believe in the regeneration of the soul and the fact that the soul is bound to the physical body due to ignorance.

6. They believe that the ultimate fate of the soul is liberation. This can only come through knowledge and Yoga. 

7. All orthodox schools adopt unique and overlapping methods to attain the liberation of the soul.

8. Lastly and most importantly, the orthodox schools are non-antagonistic to each other.

 


Conclusion


A true Hindu aspirant must have a clear understanding of all the six schools to decipher the Ultimate Truth. One should not forget that the vast and complex landscape of Hindu Philosophy is experiential (based on concrete actions or karma) and is far from any speculations. I have provided an overview of the six insights of the orthodox schools of Hinduism which evolved in ancient India around 700  - 200 BCE. It is critical to note that all schools share a common outcome. The union of individual soul with the Supreme is essential for liberation of soul or attainment of Moksha. 

 

Suggested Reading

Six Systems of Philosophy- Swami Harshananda

Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (Vol I and II), Oxford University Press, 2009

The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama –The Sacred Books of Hindus by B.D. Basu, Vijaya Press, 1913


 

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